Salvia Officinalis Oil

Salvia officinalis (Common Sage) Essential Oil - Technical Ingredient Overview

• 🔎 Chemical Name — Salvia officinalis essential oil; Dalmatian Sage Oil

• 🧪 Synonyms — Common Sage Oil, Garden Sage Oil, Culinary Sage Oil, Dalmatian Sage Oil, True Sage Oil

• 📂 CAS Number — 8022-56-8 / 84776-73-8

• 📘 FEMA Number — 3001 (Essential Oil); 3002 (Oleoresin)

• ⚖️ Molecular Weight — Complex natural mixture (essential oil); primary constituents range from 136.23 g/mol (camphor) to 154.25 g/mol (α-thujone)

• 📝 Odor Type — Camphoraceous-herbaceous, thujonic

• 📈 Odor Strength — Strong to very strong

• 👃🏼 Odor Profile — Fresh, warm-spicy, intensely herbaceous with pronounced camphoraceous-cineolic character; distinctive thujonic top note reminiscent of tansy; peculiar sweetness in the opening; warm, dry-woody undertone with excellent tenacity; pleasant sweet-herbaceous fade-out

• ⚗️ Uses — Perfumery: fougères, chypres, aldehydic bases, men's fragrances, after-shave lotions, colognes, woody-Oriental accords. Flavor: vermouth, liqueurs, meat seasonings, sausages, pickles, spice blends, bitters

• 🧴 Appearance — Pale yellow to greenish-yellow mobile liquid

What is Salvia officinalis Oil?

Salvia officinalis oil, commonly known as Dalmatian Sage Oil or Common Sage Oil, is a steam-distilled essential oil obtained from the dried leaves of Salvia officinalis L., a perennial evergreen subshrub belonging to the Lamiaceae (mint) family. This species represents one of the most commercially important sage oils in both perfumery and flavoring applications, distinct from Clary Sage (Salvia sclarea) and Spanish Sage (Salvia lavandulaefolia).

The oil is characterized by a thujone-camphor-cineole chemotype, fundamentally different from the linalool-linalyl acetate profile of Clary Sage. Salvia officinalis is native to the Mediterranean basin but has been naturalized throughout Europe, North America, and other temperate regions worldwide (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017). The species name "officinalis" derives from the Latin word for "workshop" or "pharmacy," reflecting its longstanding medicinal reputation.

Historical Background

Salvia officinalis holds one of the most distinguished historical records among culinary and medicinal herbs, with documentation extending back to classical antiquity. The genus name Salvia derives from the Latin salvere, meaning "to save" or "to heal," underscoring the plant's revered therapeutic reputation throughout history (Kintzios, 2000).

Ancient and Classical Period: Greek philosopher Theophrastus (circa 300 BCE) documented two distinct sage varieties in his botanical writings: a wild undershrub he termed sphakos and a cultivated plant called elelisphakos. Roman natural historian Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) recorded that Romans called the cultivated variety salvia and employed it as a diuretic, local anesthetic, styptic, and for numerous other medicinal applications. The Romans considered sage a "holy herb" (herba sacra) and incorporated it into religious rituals (Arctander, 1960).

Medieval Development: During the Carolingian Empire (8th-9th century CE), Emperor Charlemagne mandated sage cultivation in monastery gardens, recognizing its medicinal and culinary value. Walafrid Strabo, a Benedictine monk and scholar (808-849 CE), described sage in his horticultural poem Hortulus, praising its sweet scent and effectiveness for numerous human ailments. He referred to it as lelifagus, reverting to its Greek etymological roots (Arctander, 1960).

Throughout the Middle Ages, sage maintained an extraordinary reputation, reflected in numerous proverbs regarding its healing properties. English medieval herbals included sage in wound preparations, memory enhancement remedies, and treatments for inflammation.

Renaissance and Early Modern Period: By the 14th and 15th centuries, sage appeared prominently in European cuisine, particularly in "Cold Sage Sauce," documented in French, English, and Lombard culinary texts, including Le Viandier de Taillevent. British culinary tradition established sage alongside parsley, rosemary, and thyme as essential herbs, famously referenced in the folk song "Scarborough Fair" (Wikipedia, 2025).

Commercial Essential Oil Production: Large-scale distillation of Salvia officinalis for essential oil began in the Mediterranean region, with Yugoslavia (modern-day Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and surrounding areas) emerging as the primary producer of "Dalmatian Sage Oil" from wild-growing plants. Cyprus was another significant historical producer until 1954, when production ceased. By the mid-20th century, commercial production expanded to France, Bulgaria, Turkey, Malta, Germany, Morocco, and experimentally to North America (Arctander, 1960).

The essential oil has been used continuously in both perfumery and flavoring since the early 20th century, with annual production ranging from 5-15 metric tons during the 1960s (Arctander, 1960). Contemporary production centers remain concentrated in the Balkans, Mediterranean basin, and Central Europe.

Olfactory Profile

Scent Family

Primary: Camphoraceous-Herbaceous

Secondary: Aromatic-Spicy

Tertiary: Woody-Green

Main Descriptors

Top Note: Fresh, penetrating, sharp herbaceous-green opening with pronounced thujonic character reminiscent of tansy flowers; eucalyptol-camphoraceous facet with a peculiar sweetness; slightly pine-like and turpentine-adjacent sharpness

Heart Note: Warm-spicy, intensely herbaceous body with dominant camphoraceous-cineolic character; dry-woody nuances emerge; reminiscent of artemisia vulgaris; warm, slightly burning quality with aromatic complexity; distinct culinary herb character

Base Note: Sweet-herbaceous fade-out; pleasant, warm, and dry-woody persistence; excellent tenacity for an herbaceous material; subtle bitter-sweet undertone becomes more apparent

Key Olfactory Components (based on chemotype analysis):

• α-Thujone (18-43%): sharp, herbaceous, medicinal-camphoraceous

• Camphor (4.5-24.5%): penetrating, cooling, medicinal-woody

• 1,8-Cineole (5.5-13%): fresh, eucalyptus-like, clean

• β-Thujone (3-8.5%): herbaceous, sharp, medicinal

• Camphene (1.5-7%): woody, camphoraceous

• α-Humulene (0-12%): woody, herbal, earthy-spicy

• Viridiflorol: woody, amber-like, green

Intensity

Rating: Strong to Very Strong

Salvia officinalis oil exhibits exceptional diffusiveness and odor power. Its penetrative strength is frequently underestimated by formulators, necessitating restrained dosage levels. The oil's volatility profile allows it to function effectively as both a top note contributor and a tenacious middle note component.

Tenacity

Rating: Excellent for herbaceous materials

Demonstrates remarkable substantivity on perfume blotters and in compositions, significantly exceeding typical herbaceous essential oils. The fadeout remains detectable for extended periods, with the sweet-herbaceous character persisting well into the dry-down phase. This exceptional fixative capacity makes it valuable in cologne and fougère formulations where natural tenacity is essential.

Volatility

Classification: Top to Middle Note

Evaporation Profile: Medium to slow for a monoterpene-rich oil

Despite high monoterpene content, the oil's substantial ketone and oxide fractions (thujone, camphor, cineole) provide slower evaporation rates than typical citrus or pine oils. Functions effectively across top and middle note ranges, with sufficient persistence to influence base note development.

Fixative Role

Salvia officinalis oil serves as a natural fixative in aromatic-herbaceous compositions, particularly effective in colognes, fougères, and men's fragrances. Its tenacity-enhancing properties work synergistically with labdanum, cistus, oakmoss, and musk materials. The oil contributes substantive power without overwhelming aldehydic or fresh notes, allowing it to anchor volatile citrus and lavender components in traditional cologne structures (Arctander, 1960).

Applications in Fine Fragrance

Salvia officinalis oil functions as a powerful aromatic herbaceous component in masculine and unisex fragrance compositions, valued for its authentic naturalness, exceptional diffusiveness, and fixative properties.

• Fougère Compositions: Introduces fresh, authentic herbaceous character to fougère bases; creates realistic garden herb effects when combined with lavender, lavandin, and coumarin; contributes to the dry-aromatic aspect of traditional men's fougères; particularly effective in modern interpretations seeking natural rather than synthetic aromatic notes.

• Chypre Bases: Provides dry, spicy-herbaceous top notes that complement oakmoss, labdanum, and bergamot foundations; introduces a green-medicinal facet that enhances the forest floor character typical of chypre accords; works exceptionally well with cistus oil and patchouli in modern chypre structures.

• Cologne Formulations: Essential component in classical cologne perfumes where it lends unique tenacity and acts as a fragrant fixative; particularly valuable in combination with citrus oils (bergamot, lemon, lime), providing substantive power to volatile citrus notes; creates sophisticated transitions between volatile top notes and more tenacious heart materials.

• Men's Fragrances: Widely employed in after-shave lotions, shaving preparations, and masculine Eaux de Toilette; introduces fresh, clean, herbaceous-spicy character associated with traditional barbershop aesthetics; combines effectively with rosemary, lavender, and citrus for classic masculine grooming product profiles.

• Aldehydic Perfumes: Creates interesting modern fantasy effects when combined with aldehydic notes; the natural herbaceous character provides grounding and authenticity to abstract aldehydic structures; introduces unexpected naturalistic facets to otherwise synthetic compositions.

• Woody-Oriental Accords: Contributes to the spicy-aromatic dimension of Oriental bases; particularly effective when combined with olibanum (frankincense), cinnamon bark, and aromatic woods; introduces a dry, medicinal-herbaceous counterpoint to sweet balsamic materials.

Blending Synergies:

• Citrus oils: bergamot, lemon, lime - enhances freshness and provides fixation

• Lavender/Lavandin: creates authentic herbal garden effects

• Rosemary: reinforces aromatic-herbaceous character with complementary chemistry

• Bois de rose: soft, woody sweetness balances sage's camphoraceous intensity

• Geranium: adds rosy-herbaceous complexity

• Cedarwood derivatives: enhances dry-woody aspects

• Labdanum/Cistus: creates natural amber-herbaceous accords

• Musks (particularly nitromusks historically): provides tenacity and diffusion

Dosage Considerations: The oil's power is frequently underestimated. Typical use levels in fine fragrance range from 0.1-3% of the compound, depending on desired intensity. In colognes and aromatic fougères, levels may reach 5-8%. Trace amounts (0.05-0.2%) can introduce subtle herbaceous complexity without dominating the composition.

Performance in Formula

• Solubility: Readily soluble in alcohol and miscible with most perfume materials; performs well in both alcohol-based and oil-based fragrance systems; exhibits good stability in aqueous systems when properly solubilized.

• Stability: Demonstrates good oxidative stability due to the presence of antioxidant constituents; susceptible to thujone degradation under prolonged UV exposure; store in amber glass containers away from light and heat; shelf life typically 2-3 years under proper storage conditions.

• Blending Behavior: Exhibits excellent miscibility with aromatic, herbaceous, woody, and citrus materials; introduces complexity without mudding; can dominate delicate floral notes if not carefully proportioned; the camphoraceous-herbaceous character integrates smoothly into fougère, aromatic, and woody accords.

• pH Stability: Performs well across typical cosmetic pH ranges (4.5-7.5); stable in both acidic and neutral systems commonly used in personal care products.

• Synergistic Effects: The thujone-camphor-cineole complex creates natural synergies with other Lamiaceae oils (rosemary, lavender, lavandin); enhances the performance of synthetic aromatics (dihydromyrcenol, hedione, coumarin) by providing natural complexity; amplifies the tenacity of citrus oils through molecular interactions.

• Impact on Composition: Functions as both an aromatic top note and a substantive middle note; capable of modifying overall fragrance character even at low concentrations; introduces a "natural" signature that distinguishes formulations from purely synthetic compositions; particularly effective at creating authenticity in men's grooming products.

Industrial & Technical Uses

• Flavor Industry: Extensively employed as a flavoring agent in alcoholic beverages (vermouth production, liqueurs, bitters, aperitifs); essential in meat processing (sausages, canned meats, meat seasonings); widely used in spice blends, pickles, spice sauces, and savory food products; the dried leaves rank among the largest-volume condiment herbs imported into the United States (Arctander, 1960).

• Pharmaceutical Applications: Utilized in oral care products (mouthwashes, gargles) for its bactericidal properties; incorporated in topical preparations for minor skin irritations; employed in respiratory preparations for its expectorant qualities; traditional use in digestive aids and dyspepsia remedies continues in European phytotherapy (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017).

• Functional Fragrance: Widely employed in soap perfumery where its power, naturalness, and fixative capacity are highly valued; common in household cleaning products, detergent fragrances, and air care applications; particularly suitable for industrial perfumes requiring strong diffusion and natural character.

• Cosmetic Formulations: Incorporated in skin care products for astringent and tonic properties; used in deodorants and antiperspirants; employed in hair care for scalp stimulation and sebum regulation; valued in men's grooming lines for its traditional association with masculine aesthetics.

• Botanical Extraction Uses: Oleoresin of sage (concentrated extract) produced for flavoring applications; terpeneless or deterpenized fractions prepared for use in colognes and lotions requiring increased tenacity and improved alcohol solubility; concentrated fractions may be 4-5 times the strength of the whole oil (Arctander, 1960).

Regulatory & Safety Overview

IFRA Status

• Restricted Material - Salvia officinalis oil contains thujones (α-thujone and β-thujone) which are subject to IFRA restrictions.

• According to IFRA Amendment 49 (relevant standard for thujone-containing materials): Thujone is expected to occur naturally at 8-33% in Salvia officinalis oil and 2.5-10% in Salvia officinalis oleoresin. IFRA limits thujone levels in finished products by category, ranging from 0.0053% in certain skin contact products to 9.5% in products not intended for direct skin contact (CIR, 2021).

• IFRA Amendment 51 (effective June 2023) does not list Salvia officinalis oil as a newly prohibited or restricted material. However, existing thujone restrictions continue to apply. Formulators must calculate thujone contribution from sage oil and ensure compliance with category-specific maximum levels.

• Implementation: For materials containing thujone as a natural component, restrictions apply based on the actual thujone content. Sage oil contributions must be calculated and certified by fragrance suppliers through IFRA Certificates of Conformity.

• Official IFRA Documentation: IFRA Standards Library

EU Cosmetics Regulation

• Status: Permitted with restrictions

• Regulation: EC 1223/2009 (Cosmetics Regulation)

• Annex III: Thujone is listed as a restricted substance. Maximum concentration in finished cosmetic products: 0.1% for α-thujone and β-thujone combined (calculated based on contribution from all sources including essential oils).

• Labeling: When used as a fragrance ingredient above certain concentations, components may require disclosure under Annex III allergen labeling requirements if individual constituents exceed listing thresholds.

• EINECS Number: 282-025-9 (CAS 84776-73-8)

• FEMA Status

• GRAS Status: Salvia officinalis oil has Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status

• FEMA Number: 3001 (essential oil); 3002 (oleoresin); 3003 (various sage preparations)

• FDA Recognition: Listed as a natural seasoning under 21 CFR § 182.10

• Publication: Gooderham et al. (2023) - FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Sage oil, orris root extract and tagetes oil and related flavoring ingredients. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 179, 113940.

• Use Levels: Typical flavor use levels range from 0.5-50 ppm depending on application; updated use levels for specific food categories available from FEMA upon request.

Toxicology

• Thujone Content Concerns: The primary safety consideration for Salvia officinalis oil relates to its thujone content (typically 20-50% combined α- and β-thujone). Thujone has historical associations with toxicity due to absinthe consumption in the early 20th century, leading to regulatory restrictions (Arctander, 1960).

• Acute Toxicity: Moderate to low acute oral toxicity; animal studies indicate thujone LD50 values requiring substantial intake; essential oil demonstrates similar safety margins to other thujone-containing materials.

• Dermal Sensitization: Considered somewhat skin-irritating and potentially sensitizing due to thujone content; patch testing recommended for leave-on applications; dilution required for topical use.

• Reproductive/Developmental: Traditional contraindications exist for high-dose sage consumption during pregnancy; modern safety assessments at typical cosmetic use levels show no significant concern when used as directed.

• Neurotoxicity: Historical thujone concerns related to convulsant properties at high doses; modern use levels in fragrance and flavor applications well below thresholds of concern; regulatory limits established to prevent neurotoxic effects.

• Bactericidal Properties: Demonstrates good bactericidal activity, historically utilized in antiseptic mouth rinses and gargles; antimicrobial effects attributed to thujone, camphor, and cineole content (Arctander, 1960).

• Clinical Studies: Multiple contemporary safety assessments support safe use at regulated levels; ongoing research into cognitive effects, antimicrobial properties, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms continues (Ghorbani & Esmaeilizadeh, 2017).

• Safety Assessment: Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR) Expert Panel evaluated Salvia officinalis-derived ingredients and found them safe for use in cosmetics when formulated to be non-sensitizing and when thujone levels comply with regulatory restrictions (CIR, 2021).

Chemical Composition & Chemotypes

Salvia officinalis essential oil exhibits significant chemical variability depending on geographic origin, harvest time, environmental conditions, and plant genetics. Five major chemotypes have been identified through hierarchical cluster analysis of 185+ oil compositions (Raina et al., 2017):

Chemotype Classification

1. α-Thujone > Camphor > 1,8-Cineole (Most Common)

Represents the typical Dalmatian sage profile and the most frequently encountered chemotype globally. Characteristics: α-thujone (18-43%), camphor (8-24%), 1,8-cineole (8-20%), β-thujone (3-8%).

2. 1,8-Cineole/Camphor Chemotype

Found in certain early-season harvests and specific geographic origins. Characteristics: 1,8-cineole (30-50%), camphor (8-25%), lower thujone content (1-5%).

3. β-Thujone-Rich Chemotype

Less common variant with inverted thujone ratio. Characteristics: β-thujone dominance over α-thujone, total thujones may exceed 40%.

4. α-Humulene-Rich Chemotype

Sesquiterpene-dominant profile. Characteristics: α-humulene (15-30%), with correspondingly lower monoterpene content.

5. Sclareol/α-Thujone Chemotype

Rare chemotype showing chemical overlap with Salvia sclarea. Characteristics: presence of diterpene alcohol sclareol (typically absent in common sage), elevated α-thujone.

Major Chemical Constituents

Oxygenated Monoterpenes (typically 60-80% of total oil):

• α-Thujone (3.0-43.0%): ketone, camphoraceous-herbaceous

• β-Thujone (1.5-12.9%): ketone, herbaceous-medicinal

• Camphor (4.5-29.3%): ketone, cooling-camphoraceous

• 1,8-Cineole (5.5-45.3%): oxide, fresh-eucalyptus

• Borneol (0.5-15.0%): alcohol, camphoraceous-woody

• α-Terpineol (0.3-3.0%): alcohol, lilac-floral

• Linalool (trace-1.0%): alcohol, floral-fresh

Monoterpene Hydrocarbons (typically 10-20%):

• Camphene (1.5-7.1%)

• α-Pinene (1.3-5.8%)

• β-Pinene (0.5-3.0%)

• Limonene (0.5-3.0%)

• Myrcene (0.2-2.0%)

Sesquiterpenes (typically 10-25%):

• α-Humulene (0-12.0%): hydrocarbon, woody-spicy

• β-Caryophyllene (2.0-8.0%): hydrocarbon, spicy-woody

• Viridiflorol (1.1-10.4%): alcohol, woody-amber

• Aromadendrene (trace-3.0%)

Minor Constituents:

• Bornyl acetate (0.5-2.5%): ester, pine-woody

• Various sesquiterpene oxides and alcohols

• Diterpenes (trace amounts, primarily in certain chemotypes)

Seasonal Variation

Essential oil composition changes significantly throughout the growing season:

• Early Season (April-May): Higher 1,8-cineole, lower thujones

• Mid-Season (June-July): Peak camphor content

• Late Season (August-October): Maximum thujone accumulation, decreasing cineole

Geographic Variation

Oils from different regions show characteristic profiles:

• Dalmatian (Balkan): Classic thujone-camphor-cineole profile

• French: Often slightly lower thujone, refined odor

• Albanian: High-quality typical profile

• Spanish: May show variations due to wild-harvested mixed species

• Jordan/Middle Eastern: Often cineole-dominant, lower thujone

ISO 9909 Standard

International standard for Salvia officinalis oil specifies:

• α-Thujone: 18-43%

• β-Thujone: 3-8.5%

• Camphor: 4.5-24.5%

• 1,8-Cineole: 5.5-13%

• α-Humulene: 0-12%

• α-Pinene: 1-6.5%

• Camphene: 1.5-7%

• Density (20°C): 0.910-0.930

• Refractive index (20°C): 1.4580-1.4740

• Optical rotation (20°C): +2° to +30°

Note: Many commercial oils fall outside these ranges, particularly for 1,8-cineole and α-thujone, reflecting natural variation.

Quality Control & Adulteration

Common Adulterants: Synthetic linalool and linalyl acetate additions (confusion with clary sage); Mentha citrata oil (bergamot mint); cedar leaf oil (thuja oil) containing similar thujone; Spanish sage oil fractions; rosemary oil; artemisia oils; turpentine fractions; synthetic terpineol or camphor; light cedarwood fractions (Arctander, 1960).

Detection Methods:

• Olfactory Evaluation: Critical primary test - characteristic tobacco-like, balsamic, tea-like note in dry-down should be present; adulterants affect the unique non-linalool, non-cineole character

• GC-MS Analysis: Complete chemical profiling to verify constituent ratios and identify synthetic additions

• Optical Rotation: Should fall within +2° to +30° at 20°C

• Specific Gravity: 0.910-0.930 at 20°C

• Refractive Index: 1.4580-1.4740 at 20°C

• Carbonyl Value: 103-288, corresponding to 28-78% carbonyl compounds calculated as thujone

Authentication: Olfactory testing remains paramount due to the presence of minor constituents not affecting physico-chemical properties but critical to authentic sage character. Strict olfactory evaluation recommended prior to significant purchases (Arctander, 1960).

Sourcing Considerations: Specify geographic origin (Dalmatian, French, Albanian preferred for perfumery); request harvest date and chemotype analysis; verify wild-harvested vs. cultivated; ensure compliance with current IFRA and regulatory standards.

Production & Sustainability

• Yield: 0.5-1.0% from partially dried leaves; 10.0-24.8 mL/kg in commercial dried leaf material (Raina et al., 2017; Arctander, 1960)

• Cultivation: Thrives in Mediterranean climates; requires well-drained soil and full sun; perennial cultivation with 3-5 year productive cycles; can be cultivated organically with proper management.

• Harvesting: Optimal harvest during early to mid-flowering stage for balanced oil composition; multiple harvests possible per season; leaves dried before distillation to concentrate essential oil.

• Global Production: Major producing regions include Croatia (Dalmatia), Albania, France, Bulgaria, Morocco, Spain, and experimentally in Oregon and Washington, USA; historical annual production estimates 5-15 metric tons (Arctander, 1960).

• Wild Harvesting: Traditionally wild-harvested in the Balkans (Dalmatian sage); increasing cultivation has reduced pressure on wild populations; sustainability concerns minimal due to widespread cultivation.

• Environmental Considerations: Relatively low environmental impact; adaptable to marginal lands; supports pollinator populations during flowering; potential for regenerative agriculture practices in Mediterranean regions.

References

• Arctander, S. (1960). Perfume and flavor materials of natural origin. Elizabeth, NJ: Arctander.

• Cosmetic Ingredient Review (CIR). (2021). Safety assessment of Salvia officinalis (Sage)-derived ingredients. Retrieved from https://www.cir-safety.org/sites/default/files/Sage.pdf

• Ghorbani, A., & Esmaeilizadeh, M. (2017). Pharmacological properties of Salvia officinalis and its components. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 7(4), 433-440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtcme.2016.12.014

• Gooderham, N.J., Cohen, S.M., Eisenbrand, G., Fukushima, S., Guengerich, F.P., Hecht, S.S., Rietjens, I.M.C.M., Rosol, T.J., Davidsen, J.M., Harman, C.L., Kelly, S.E., & Taylor, S.V. (2023). FEMA GRAS assessment of natural flavor complexes: Sage oil, orris root extract and tagetes oil and related flavoring ingredients. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 179, 113940. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2023.113940

• International Fragrance Association (IFRA). (2020). IFRA Standard 49th Amendment: Thujone. Retrieved from https://ifrafragrance.org/standards/IFRA_STD_102.pdf

• International Fragrance Association (IFRA). (2023). IFRA Standards – 51st Amendment. Retrieved from https://ifrafragrance.org/initiatives-positions/safe-use-fragrance-science/ifra-standards

• Kintzios, S.E. (Ed.). (2000). Sage: The genus Salvia. Harwood Academic Publishers.

• Raina, A.P., Negi, K.S., & Dutta, M. (2017). The chemotaxonomy of common sage (Salvia officinalis) based on the volatile constituents. Medicines, 4(3), 47. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicines4030047

• Stoilova, I., Wanner, J., Jirovetz, L., Trifonova, D., Krastev, L., Stoyanova, A., & Krastanov, A. (2024). Variation in the composition of the essential oil of commercial Salvia officinalis L. leaves samples from different countries. South African Journal of Botany, 169, 524-531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2024.03.025

• Wikipedia. (2025). Salvia officinalis. Retrieved October 9, 2025, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvia_officinalis

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